Lead exposure and workplace health effects.

The following is a reprint of a 1987 paper published by Gary Middleton. This document is subject to U.S. and International copyright laws.

LEAD HAZARD

Lead is one of the first metals known to man. A lead figure dated at about 3000 B.C., which was found in the Temple of Osiris at Abydos, is preserved in the British Museum. Accumulations of lead in the body may result in lead poisoning. Acute or chronic health problems are caused by lead poisoning. Although Hippocrates reported the toxic effects of lead as early as 370 B.C., serious studies about lead poisoning were not undertaken in the United States until 1910.

Benjamin Franklin observed that some families suffered from "dangling, paralytic hands" and "the dry belly-ache" as a result of drinking rain water collected from roofs to a tank or vessel for later use. Franklin deducted that leaves from trees settled upon the roof slates. An acid leached from the leaves freeing the lead in the roof slates to contaminate the water.

On another occasion, Franklin also observed that North Carolina residents were suffering from the dry belly-ache as a result of consuming New England rum.  Investigation of the New England rum reveled that the top and coil of the stills contained lead. As a result, the legislature of Massachusetts passed a law prohibiting the use of lead in the tops and coils of stills.

Traces of lead are found naturally on earth, but these natural amounts are not attributed to the dangerous accumulations of lead which form in the body. Lead poisoning is the result of human factors.

DESCRIPTION

Lead is a soft, malleable, ductile metal which is characterized by a dull bluish-gray color. Resistant to sulfuric acid and sulfurous acid fumes makes lead a desirable coating for metal. Other outstanding characteristics of lead are heavy weight, high density, softness, malleability, flexibility, low melting point, low tensile strength, poor conductor of electricity, high resistance to corrosion, and ability to alloy with several other metals such as tin.

USES IN INDUSTRY

Enormous quantities of lead are used in industry. Lead is widely used in storage batteries and lead-sheathed power and telephone cable. Large quantities of lead are used for lining pipes, tanks, and X-ray apparatus. Protective shielding for radioactive material is commonly made of lead because of its high density and nuclear properties.

Many alloys contain a percentage of lead such as type metal, some pewter's, and solder. Both military and sporting ammunition account for a large amount of lead. Lead is also used as an additive to gasoline, which is the source of most lead in the air.

INDUSTRIES & WORKERS INVOLVED

Lead poisoning is commonly the effect of a worker inhaling dust on the job which contains lead. Industries which provide a workplace containing lead dust are lead smelters, storage-battery plants, and paint manufacturing plants.

Old houses which have lead plumbing and lead-laced paint still prove to be a source of lead for children and adults alike.

EFFECT ON THE BODY

Many effects of lead poisoning are nonspecific and difficult to diagnose. Low-level lead poisoning can make a person have a tired run down feeling, nervousness, frequent colds, and other infections, apathy, lack of ambition, colic, and malfunctioning of many body systems.

High-levels of lead poisoning can cause anemia, weakness, constipation, palsy a paralysis of the wrists and ankles, neurological injury, infertility, brain damage, mental retardation in children, and even death.

The body does have ways to excrete lead by action of macrophages, but these natural defenses do not have the ability to rid itself of high levels of lead; thus, lead accumulates in the body.

CONTROL

Lead poisoning can be controlled by careful regulation of working conditions and periodic physical examination of exposed workers. The primary way to regulate the workplace by implementation of permanent engineering controls. Respirators are used only as a last resort. Unions contend respirators are a health hazard because they are difficult to breathe through.

Periodic physical examination of exposed workers helps to identify workers who have accumulated blood leads above certain levels. The worker who has received high levels of lead exposure may be transferred to other jobs or placed on leave of absence from his job.

OSHA REQUIREMENTS

OSHA has imposed several requirements regarding lead exposure. If an employees exposure to lead exceeds an action level of 30 micrograms per cubic meter of air, time weighted average, based on a standard eight hour work-day, several requirements of the 1910.1025 are initiated. These requirements may consist of exposure monitoring, medical surveillance, and training and education.

If the permissible exposure limit (PEL) of fifty micrograms of lead per cubic meter of air is exceeded, the employer is required to provide and assure the use of a respirator by the employee.

Medical surveillance is to be supplied free of charge to the employee~ if the employees exposure exceeds the action level for more than 30 days a year.

The employer must supply training, information, standards and its appendices to employees exposed to lead.

OPINION

The Romans were very creative in the use of lead. Lead was used for pipes, cups, toys, coins, lids for containers and the containers themselves, sieves, solder, paint, cosmetics, and external medicines.

The Roman writer Pliny the Elder advised the use of lead pots and not bronze or copper pots in the making of defrutum. The reason was the nasty taste followed by vomiting was evidence of copper poisoning. Lead, however, had a sweet taste which enhanced the taste of defrutum.

The Roman aristocracy failed to reproduce itself because of stillbirths, fetal deaths, miscarriages, and sterility; all believed to be caused by lead poisoning. Over a period of a century the Roman leadership fell into new hands. The new leadership lived by the same standards as their previous rulers. Eventually the new rulers poisoned themselves with lead; soon Rome fell.

As technology brings new stresses to the workplace, many years may past before we know the adverse effects of our advancements.

Blend this delayed effect with our current knowledge and it should be evident that the norm of society must lean toward more control of our environment so that we do not harm ourselves with such innocence that caused the demise of the Roman empire.

While it may he true a civilization that does not study its history is subject to make the same mistakes again, it may be equally true that if we do not act in order to prevent what we know is a mistake, history will surely repeat itself.

WORKS CITED

Burns, R. M., and W.W. Bradely. Protective Coating For Metals. New York. Reinhold Publishing Corp.. pg. 267-273. 1967.

Eisenbud, Merril. Environment, Technology, And Health. New York. New York University Press. pg. 248-255. 1978.

“Lead.” Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia. Standard Reference Library, Inc.. New York. pg. 5543-4. 1972.

Lyman, Taylor, ed. Properties And Selection Of Metals. American Society For Metals. 1961.

Montague, Katherine and Peter Montague. No World Without End. New York. G.P. Putnam’s Son. pg. 78-142. 1976.

OSHA Standards For General Industry. Chicago. Commerce Clearing House, Inc.. pg. 401-426. 1986.

Pringle, Laurence. Lives At Stake. New York. MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc.. pg. 40-57. 1980.

Tate, Cassandra. “American Dilemma Of Jobs, Health, In an Idaho Town.” Smithsonian 12:74—83. 5 1981.

Frazier M.D., Clark A. "Ben Franklin On Lead Poisoning"  The Saturday Evening Post 252:70-71. October 1980

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Copyright 1987 Gary Middleton

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